Exploring the Link Between ADHD & Gifted Education:
Twice Exceptional Learners
by Ella F. Burke, Education Theory & Practice
This report identifies the link between ADHD and gifted education. Beginning with an overview of each, the parallels among behaviors are then thoroughly examined to provide justification for a change in testing and adequate representation of twice exceptional students with ADHD. Lastly, differentiation and support for twice exceptional students with a basis in positive perceptions towards the self and learning is provided to give educators a general understanding of how they can better teach students with gifted and ADHD characteristics—in addition to twice exceptional students as a whole.
ADHD, giftedness, twice-exceptional, strength-based education, differentiation, identification & assessment
Introduction
Exploring the intersection between ADHD and gifted education is critical for educators, psychologists, and parents alike. This intersection, termed “twice-exceptional,” refers to students who simultaneously possess gifted abilities and disabilities such as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Misunderstanding and misdiagnosing these students can lead to inadequate support, negatively impacting their educational outcomes and perceptions of self. This paper begins by providing a detailed overview of ADHD and giftedness, discussing symptoms, assessment methods, and current educational accommodations available for students and families. It then examines the overlapping characteristics and challenges that result in frequent misdiagnosis and inappropriate educational placements. Finally, the paper proposes strength-based educational strategies and holistic approaches to assessment designed to better support twice-exceptional learners.
An Overview of ADHD and Education
Symptoms & Types
ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a psychiatric disorder primarily impacting an individual’s executive functioning, which requires a diagnosis from a licensed professional. ADHD presents as three different subtypes: predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, predominantly inattentive, and combined hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive (Rasheed et al., 2013). Each subtype of ADHD has its own set of symptoms that can affect an individual differently. ADHD is a difficult disorder to diagnose and manage because most people experience these symptoms at some point. According to Wender & Tomb (2016), all children exhibit these traits—but what characterizes ADHD in children is the intensity, persistence, and patterning of these symptoms. Common symptoms of the hyperactive-impulsive type include fidgeting, impatience, excessive talking and/or blurting out, touching and playing with surrounding objects, and more (Wender & Tomb, 2016). The inattentive type presents as forgetfulness, missing details, frequent boredom, trouble paying attention, daydreaming, losing items, information processing challenges, and more (Wender & Tomb, 2016). The combined type is the most common among children and includes six or more symptoms of the hyperactive-impulsive type and six or more symptoms of the inattentive type (Wender & Tomb, 2016).
Accommodations
A common challenge with diagnosing children with ADHD is that they often have an additional disorder or condition. Specifically, 25-40% of children with ADHD are diagnosed with a specific learning disorder affecting reading, writing, or math, making it difficult to provide effective treatment (Wender & Tomb, 2016). Regarding learning and instruction, children with ADHD will receive services and accommodations through two governing laws: the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (CDC, 2024). These laws provide two federal plans for student support in school and a range of services and requirements for eligibility. Plans include an Individualized Education Program (IEP) and a 504 Plan. Schultz (2022) describes an IEP as a specialized instruction program developed by a team that includes “measurable learning goals, accommodations and/or modifications, how progress will be measures, and related services.” A 504 Plan is developed for students who require accommodations and supports to access academic and extra-curricular activities as their peers would (Schultz, 2022). Essentially, IEPs adjust what is being learned and 504 Plans adjust how it is learned. The type of plan needed is based on the individual needs of each child and the severity of their ADHD. Common accommodations include a reduced distraction environment, extended time on assignments and exams, breaks throughout the day, seating arrangements, notetaking assistance, organization and self-management training, recorded lectures, and access to visuals and/or audio content (Harrison et al., 2020). Accommodations are determined through evaluation and recommendation from the student’s teachers, doctors, and parents through formal meetings with school administration to put the plan in place (Bailey, 2025). Depending on the plan, it can include a combination of support and services and be updated as the student develops.
“Treatment”
Treating ADHD can be long and challenging as the process is individualized and depends on trial-and-error to find what works best. Aside from accommodations, other forms of management for ADHD include medication (stimulant or non-stimulant), behavior therapy for children and parents, counseling, lifestyle changes, and more (CDC, 2024). No treatment eradicates all symptoms, but a combination of those previously mentioned can help alleviate the intensity of symptoms and improve functioning (NIMH, 2024). Since ADHD is uniquely presented in each child, effective management is also going to be unique to that child and will require frequent changes and observations until an effective management plan is in place. Further, the National Resource Center on ADHD recommends a “multimodal approach” tailored to the unique needs of each individual to help “control symptoms, cope with the disorder, improve overall psychological well-being and manage social relationships” (CHADD, 2025). ADHD is a severely complex and multi-faceted disorder that influences who children are and how they experience life. There is much more to it than not being able to focus. Educators, administrators, healthcare professionals, and parents should engage in continuous education on ADHD and treatment options to better serve children.
An Overview of Giftedness & Education
What Is Giftedness?
The idea of children being “gifted” is relatively new in the psycho-educational society, causing researchers to have conflicting ideas around definitions, education, roots in science, and so forth. Generally, most definitions involve an individual possessing elevated neurological capabilities in multiple high-achievement areas such as academics, creativity, leadership, or intelligence. Identifying children as ‘gifted’ began in the 1920s with Lewis Terman—a researcher at Stanford University who used intelligence test scores for gifted criteria (Wakefield et al., 2023). Over the course of the 20th century, psychologists have made advancements in defining giftedness; however, there is still much left to discover. The concept of nature vs. nurture has been debated in gifted capabilities, with findings showing how early experiences of motivation and nurture can develop a broader range of talent and abilities in children, even more so when parents model this behavior and provide their children with expert resources and communities (Wakefield et al., 2023).
Assessment
Identifying and assessing children with gifted abilities involves multiple factors since a singular test is not available. Wakefield et al. (2023) discusses how a nomination by a teacher, parent, or school social worker begins the testing process, and such nominations are typically supported by previous academic scores. Once nominated, students conduct multiple tests and examinations to determine their eligibility, often standardized tests, IQ tests, or supplemental observations. The Georgia Department of Education examines percentile scores in areas of mental ability, achievement, creativity, and motivation (GaDOE, 2023). Scores are then reviewed by an eligibility team and recommendations are given such as an Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
Challenges
Gifted children often struggle in school because the curriculum is not challenging them enough to develop their skills, potentially leading to poor work habits. Additionally, gifted children may struggle with peer relationships due to advanced interests, while at the same time they are vulnerable to feelings of frustration from understanding concepts on an adult level (Wakefield et al., 2023). These are just a few reasons why gifted children need extra support and a modified education. However, due to the lack of research and recognition, they may not be getting all they need to succeed in school and life.
Commonalities Between ADHD & Giftedness
Behavioral Similarities
However limited it may be, the research on gifted children shares substantial similarities with that on children with ADHD. The similarities between ADHD and giftedness are seen in areas regarding their understanding and definition, testing, educational impacts, social-emotional development, and, most significantly, their core characteristics (Davidson Institute, 2021). Research from Webb & Latimer (1993) provide a comparative view of the behaviors associated with ADHD and Giftedness which the Davidson Institute, in combination with additional research, used to show the difference between how these behaviors are presented. Table 1 displays the similarities between characteristics as well as the positive and negative connotations associated with giftedness and ADHD.
As evident in Table 1, there are significantly more similarities than differences among behaviors. Although there are disparities to some degree in how they are written and the growth vs. deficit mindset associated with these descriptions, which are discussed below, ADHD and giftedness are almost indistinguishable. Unfortunately, this similarity leads to misdiagnosis, harmful education practices, and a lack of research.
Testing
Additional commonalities are evident in testing and educational approaches. Since ADHD and giftedness are both brain-based differences, the impacts of each present through behavior and modes of thinking—both of which are highly unique to the individual. The testing process for both ADHD and giftedness requires a multitude of tests and examinations from trained professionals and input from those close to the child. This makes diagnosis difficult as symptoms may be missed or not present at that time. In addition to this, there is no definitive test—genetic or otherwise—to identify these students due to neither condition being fully understood despite how common they are (Davidson Institute, 2021).
Teaching
Educational approaches hold similarities as well. Both ADHD and giftedness require changes to the child’s education. Whether that be through 504 Plan accommodations or modifying curriculum in an IEP, these students require a lot of care and attention when it comes to obtaining an adequate education. Educators also have a responsibility for the pedagogical approaches they use as they have a significant impact on these similarities. By knowing their students and staying up to date on the research and development of these conditions, they can teach these students in ways that will help them grow as students and members of society.
Inequalities in Gifted Testing
A Disadvantage
The way the testing process for gifted education is designed inadvertently puts students with ADHD at a disadvantage. As a result, it drastically reduces the number of students with ADHD in gifted education programs. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) federal mandate (2001) created disparities across state regulation and funding for gifted education as it allowed more freedom for states to allocate funding and does not include a federal definition of giftedness or a mandate of services (Beisser, 2008). Due to the lack of consistency and recourses, readily available data and cost-effective tools are often used in the testing process. This means that states will commonly use a combination of quantitative measures (e.g. achievement tests) and qualitative measures (e.g. observations and surveys) to determine giftedness (Davidson Institute, 2022). Because of the symptoms associated with ADHD, such as impulsiveness and restlessness, diagnosed students have been found to have significantly lower math and reading scores on standardized tests (Coile, 2011). This puts students testing for giftedness at a disadvantage as the assessment is now a barrier in receiving gifted services. Standardized tests involve almost every challenge that’s associated with ADHD. Students can’t move around, must remain quiet, quickly lose focus and/or stamina, and the test itself does not allow students to explain themselves. These factors often lead to students becoming overstimulated and frustrated; thus, they are unable to demonstrate their abilities effectively. In addition to receiving inadequate instruction, students with ADHD are shown to experience low self-esteem often caused by repeated setbacks and difficulties (Mazzone et al., 2013). The current testing procedures for gifted education have the potential to harm students’ self-esteem if they are frequently experiencing setbacks and unable to receive an education tailored to their gifted and ADHD needs.
Criteria
Aside from testing inequalities, there additionally is no formal criteria to identify giftedness in children who have ADHD (Davidson Institute, 2021). This causes the evaluator to rely on behavior checklists from parents and teachers in addition to their own observations to determine eligibility. While somewhat effective, this approach does not evaluate the whole child. Additionally, few evaluators are trained in the overlap between giftedness and ADHD, meaning decisions are often made based solely on their judgment.
Alternative Testing
Looking into alternative testing measures, researchers have begun exploring how to determine giftedness accurately and effectively in students with ADHD. The Davidson Institute (2021) states how identification is still a challenging process but made more possible when professionals who have both knowledge and experience working with the two populations conduct in-depth evaluations: specifically, taking a holistic approach through examinations of the child’s behavior in and outside of the classroom. A holistic approach would allow evaluators to observe the child in multiple environments over a prolonged period. This provides deeper insight into how the child’s ADHD characteristics interact with potential gifted qualities. Similarly, in a publication for the 1999 CHADD International Conference, Lovecky (1999) presents research supporting a potential model for identification by considering other notable gifted qualities present in the student that aren’t traditionally tested; such qualities include predominant developmental asynchrony, rapid learning abilities, increased sensitivity, and unique interests that differ from peers. In contrast to Lovecky, there are students identified as gifted who experience undiagnosed ADHD symptoms and struggle obtaining a diagnosis. As a tool for identifying these students, Gomez et al. (2019) found that three particular traits of the hyperactive-impulsive type could present themselves with greater severity in children who are gifted and have ADHD: difficulty regulating physical activity, speaking out of turn, and difficulty regulating talkativeness.
Political Involvement
It’s evident that psychologists are making advancements in ADHD and gifted development. Approaches to testing relating to the aforementioned models will begin to clear a pathway for students obtaining the educational and psychological validation and support they deserve. The most influential decision, however, comes from states’ Departments of Education as they set the standard for how testing is regulated and who they deem worthy of a gifted education. As seen in Figure 1, the state of Georgia’s Department of Education still bases giftedness around percentile ranges and standardized test scores rather than holistic examinations of student ability in multiple environments (GaDOE, 2023). Although the eligibility requirements are not ideal, it is, however, important that there is some level of state recognition or involvement. Specifically speaking, the GaDOE gave local school boards the task of designing their own gifted curriculum and classes rather than adopting a statewide curriculum. This means that students could switch districts or potentially even schools and see vast differences in the gifted curriculum and resources.
Supporting 2E Students
Twice Exceptionality
There are a multitude of ways gifted students with ADHD can be supported. Because of the immense versatility associated with both ADHD and giftedness, support for these students will vary depending on the educational, physical, and socio-emotional needs stemming from both conditions. Students with gifted abilities and diagnosed ADHD fall under the term “twice exceptional,” or 2e. This report has emphasized the lack of clarity regarding giftedness and ADHD. However, that is not the case for twice exceptional children. In 2009, a national Joint Commission on Twice-Exceptional Students was formed to adopt a new definition for 2e students based on current research and scholarly discourse from researchers, authors, practitioners, clinical psychologists, and educational therapists (Baum et al., 2017).
Baum et al. (2017) provides the following definition produced by the committee:
Twice-exceptional learners are students who demonstrate the potential for high achievement or creative productivity in one or more domains such as math, science, technology, the social arts, the visual, spatial, or performing arts or other areas of human productivity AND who manifest one or more disabilities as defined by federal or state eligibility criteria. These disabilities include specific learning disabilities, speech and language disorders, emotional/behavioral disorders, physical disabilities, Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), or other health impairments such as Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). (p. 13)
Starting Points
Connecting back to versatility, this definition encompasses eight learning domains to excel in and seven types of disabilities/disorders that students can have. Although this definition may seem overwhelming by the number of ways students can present as 2e, in actuality it provides key information pertaining to the specific supports each student may need. This definition offers educators a starting point in the process of developing content and instructional adaptations.
Supporting Strengths
There is a commonality among the research pertaining to 2e students and the best practices to support them and their learning. Baum et al. (2017) addressed the key to supporting students as a strength-based approach to their learning. A strength-based approach involves differentiating curricular and instructional practices to support students’ individual assets, while providing the resources needed to grow in areas of struggle. It can also involve recognizing and then applying students’ talents and interests to their learning through ample exploration opportunities and curriculum integration (Baum et al., 2017). There are many additional components to strength-based learning as it’s a very individualistic concept that is intended to be continuously molded to fit the needs of students as they grow.
Growth Goals
Looking at growth, Baum et al. (2017) noted five interconnected factors that are critical for 2e student growth: a psychologically safe environment, tolerance for asynchronous behaviors, time (letting changes occur naturally without force), positive relationships with everyone involved in the students’ lives, and a strength-based and talent-focused environment (adapting as awareness for individuality grows). As these factors begin to work in unison, students will slowly begin to show improvements as they develop ways to use their twice exceptionalness to their advantage. If growth is the goal for students, then these steps provide an adaptable framework to implement and subsequently change as the student’s progress.
Deficit Perceptions
While focusing on growth and student achievement is vital in educating 2e students, there is an additional component that requires just as much, if not more, attention and focus. By the time that twice exceptional students are diagnosed, they’ve often already experienced the harmful impacts and deficit thinking associated with being gifted and having a disability. Fugate (2018) depicts how common it is for students to begin viewing themselves as stupid; despite the student knowing they’re gifted, “their ADHD and co-occurring conditions can make them feel isolated and alone,” which often registers for them as feeling stupid (p. 191).
Positive Research
Common experiences such as this and many more are the reason why researchers and professionals are conducting studies and providing frameworks like “Attention Divergent Hyperactive Gifted,” to help address the stigma and deficit thinking associated with ADHD and other disabilities (Fugate, 2018, p. 194). Simply switching the language and tone in which conditions are discussed can have a significant impact on perceptions and focus on positive traits rather than negative. Still, more research is needed to fully understand and support the positive instruction and development of 2e students, especially those with ADHD.
Concluding Statement
This paper highlights the critical need for a better understanding of twice-exceptional students who navigate the complexities of both ADHD and giftedness. Significant similarities in behavioral characteristics, paired with flawed assessment methods, puts these students at a disadvantage in the current education system. Adopting strength-based instructional methods and comprehensive assessment practices can lead to improved educational experiences and outcomes. Future research should focus on developing standardized holistic assessment criteria that accurately identify and support twice-exceptional learners. Additionally, more research is necessary to understand the long-term impacts of these supportive practices on students’ academic achievements, emotional well-being, and lifelong learning trajectories.
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Acknowledgements: I want to sincerely thank Dr. Capuozzo and the Mary Frances Early College of Education faculty for providing me the opportunity, guidance, and support throughout my academic endeavors. To my family and friends, I couldn’t have reached this milestone without your unwavering love and support.
Citation Style: APA 7